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However, it was not financially attractive for smallholder farmers to intercrop compared with growing low input sole crop maize.
Research should focus on ways, including fiscal policy, to increase the attractiveness to the processing companies of relying on smallholder production.
With steadily increasing demand for palm oil, the authors suggest that a major opportunity exists for environmentally and socially sustainable expansion of smallholder production.
Where given reasonable and economically viable alternatives, smallholders respond.
This means that the results have application to other producers including the smallholders.
At the same time, there was implicit recognition of the major coordination challenges facing private investors in smallholder agriculture.
Where projects provide services relevant to several conventions, it may be possible to bundle payments to smallholders and communities.
Instead, agricultural capitalism, introduced into the province earlier than industrial capitalism, crowded out smallholders.
Initially, at least, the growth of the smallholder population only exacerbated a situation of increasing demand for labourers and labour mobility.
Many smallholders do not use insecticides at all, so that they suffer significant pest-related yield losses.
The paper concludes with recommendations to reduce the disadvantages that smallholders may face in capturing the opportunities offered by carbon markets.
However, there are a number of challenges to operationalizing carbon-sink projects with participation by smallholders.
It can be said with reasonable certainty that smallholder maize production has stagnated.
The abandonment of the socialist development model included the dissolution of large-scale state farms, and a renewed emphasis on development of the smallholder sector.
These historical and analytical perspectives combine to produce a determined faith in the viability, desirability and inherent superiority of smallholder farming.
