0 relating to the hard outer surface of the earth: --
crustal displacement
Nd-isotope systematics reveal the characteristics of the source from which the magma is derived (including the contribution of older crustal material).
In some of these inter pretations, amplitudes have been modelled to constrain velocity gradients and fine-scale crustal structure.
If plate tectonics occurs, it must involve crustal fractionation into components with different buoyancy.
Crustal contamination commonly plays an important role during magma emplacement and its effects must be evaluated carefully.
It underlines the importance of acquiring coincident normal incidence and wide-angle profiles if crustal structure is to be fully characterized.
However, a simple restoration of structural units is worthwhile for determining approximate minimum amounts of upper crustal shortening and original palaeogeographic positions.
This area is not located at the margins of the earth's crustal plates where structural stresses may be released as frequent earthquakes and intense volcanicity.
At shallow crustal levels, extension can be taken up by tension fractures that sole out onto a normal fault-plane at depth.
