Within some of these organelles, membrane-bound vesicles are present, indicating that autophagy has occurred.
Autophagy of mitochondria and cytoplasmic vesicles also occurs.
Autophagy has been observed in normal eukaryotic cells and is enhanced in cells subjected to remodelling in the course of differentiation or other induced changes.
Autophagy, cytoplasm to-vacuole targeting pathway, and pexophagy in yeast and mammalian cells.
Autophagy increases also in cells exposed to metabolic stress and in those with a high endocytic activity.
Autophagy of mitochondria and other cytoplasmic components may occur, and a-glycogen definition may be lost.
Autophagy can thus remove protein aggregates and damaged organelles, that can lead to cellular dysfunction.
In microbiology, xenophagy is the process by which a cell directs autophagy against pathogens, as reflected in the study of antiviral defenses.
