The few avian frugivores that forage on the ground leave obvious marks (catbird, tooth-billed bowerbird) or ingest fruit whole (cassowary).
Thus iron, ingested by hookworms, even if excreted again cannot be re-absorbed and is therefore lost.
After ingesting the cysticerci, the human volunteers checked their faeces daily for the presence of proglottids.
The seeds of at least six species were ingested whole and defecated intact.
Finally, encysted metacercariae within the second intermediate host must be ingested by a suitable vertebrate definitive host for the parasite to become an egg-producing adult.
The gammarids are orally infected when ingesting parasite eggs released in the faeces of the definitive host.
If the parasites encyst in the open, they will be accidentally ingested by the definitive host, usually a grazing mammal of some sort.
To complete the life cycle metacercariae must be ingested by definitive hosts.
