To analyse the adaptive learning process, we need expressions for expected payoffs from cooperation and defection in an environment.
Payoff from defection in that environment is obtained in the same way.
The costs of defection can be very large for both senders and receivers.
The costs of such defection can be high.
In particular, defection by a merchant is punished by having the defecting merchant get the payoff from autarky, which is zero.
For example, states can develop international organizations that define what actions constitute cooperation and defection and that monitor states' compliance with these guidelines.
Electoral security only reduces the potential costs of defection if there was a desire to defect for some other reason.
This suggests that concern about junior defections when the party is in trouble is not an altogether new phenomenon.
